whirrwork

Robot or Human? · Methodology

How the model works

Plain formulas, public data, and a list of every number we had to assume. Version 1.0.0.

1. What each option costs

People, employed. Hours needed per month = workload ÷ output per person-hour. Annual cost = hours × months × hourly wage × employer on-cost multiplier (+ equipment per hour, if you add one).

People or robots, hired as a service. Annual cost = units per year × price per unit.

Robots you buy, lease or subscribe to. The robot handles the share of work it can do (1 − edge share); the rest is still bought at the baseline's unit cost. Robot-hours needed = robot work ÷ robot output per hour. Robots needed = robot-hours ÷ (operating hours × days × uptime), rounded up. Then:

  • Capital: (robots × price + integration) repaid as an annuity at the financing rate over the useful life. Maintenance = robots × price × maintenance %.
  • Lease and subscription: fees × robots × 12 (+ per-hour fees × robot-hours), with integration annuitised.
  • Supervision: robot-hours × staff minutes per robot-hour ÷ 60 × loaded wage.
  • Failures: the share of robot work lost to faults is redone at the baseline's unit cost.
  • Energy: robot-hours × kWh per hour × price per kWh.

2. Payback, break-even utilisation and NPV

Payback (months) = upfront cost ÷ (baseline monthly cost − option monthly operating cost). "Never" when there is no saving.

Break-even utilisation u* = F ÷ (M × (v − c)), where F is the fixed annual cost of one robot, M its maximum productive hours per year, v the value of the human work one robot-hour displaces (robot output per hour × (1 − failure share) × baseline unit cost) and c the variable cost per robot-hour (supervision, energy, per-hour fees). Above 100% means even a robot that never stops would not pay.

NPV over 5 years = −upfront + Σm=1..60 (baseline costm − option operating costm) ÷ (1 + r/12)m + residual value. Labour-linked costs (wages, supervision, leftover human work, the labour share of service prices) grow with wage growth each year; contract fees, maintenance and energy are held flat. Owned robots are replaced at the end of their life if that falls inside the horizon, and the remaining straight-line value is credited at the end.

The payback and NPV functions are checked against hand-computed examples in scripts/rvh.test.mjs (for example: $72,000 a year of human work against two $50,000 robots with $10,000 integration and 10% maintenance gives a 21.3-month payback and a $200,000 five-year NPV at 0% discount).

3. Projections

Hardware prices follow Wright's law: pricet = price0 × (cumulative unitst ÷ cumulative units0)−b, with b = −log₂(1 − learning rate). We approximate cumulative-unit growth with annual shipment growth (exact only when shipments grow at a steady rate). Lease and subscription fees are split into a hardware share (follows the learning curve) and a service share (follows wages); robot service prices are split into equipment and labour the same way; integration follows wages, because it is mostly people. Robot productivity improves at the scenario rate. Everything is in constant 2026 money. The crossover year is the first year the cheapest robot option costs no more than the baseline; "now" means already true in 2026; "after 2035" means not inside the window.

4. Where the numbers come from

  • Wages: US: BLS OEWS May 2025 medians by occupation, national and 8 states. Japan: MHLW 2024 Basic Survey on Wage Structure by occupation, including bonuses. China: NBS 2024 average annual wages by position ÷ (48.6 h × 52). Germany, UK, India, Brazil, Mexico: ILOSTAT mean hourly earnings by ISCO-08 major group from national surveys (Germany uprated from 2022 to 2025 with Eurostat). Major-group averages are not the exact job; the calculator says so next to the wage.
  • Employer on-costs: US from BLS ECEC (wages are 70.0% of compensation); Germany from Eurostat labour cost levels; UK derived from statutory employer NIC (15%) and pension (3%). Japan, China, India, Brazil and Mexico are assumptions with the statutory components listed: Japan ×1.16, China ×1.3, India ×1.1, Brazil ×1.6, Mexico ×1.3.
  • Robot and service prices: Whirrwork's own price observations (each with a public source URL) plus vendor price pages, municipal contracts and extension-service surveys. Vendor numbers are labelled as vendor numbers. US prices are converted for other countries at ECB reference rates (2026-10-23) and flagged; service prices are also adjusted for local labour cost, which is a modelled estimate.
  • Trend points and learning rates: see the trends page and its receipts.

5. Every assumption without a source

These are ours. They are editable in each calculator and highlighted there. If you have a better number with a source, the calculator will take it, and we would like to hear about it.

JobInputDefaultWhy
Commercial floor cleaningvolume40000Square feet scrubbed per day: a big-box store or small warehouse. Use yours.
Commercial floor cleaninghours8Hours per day the floor is available for cleaning.
Commercial floor cleaningdays22Cleaning days per month.
Commercial floor cleaningmonths12Active months per year.
Commercial floor cleaningratio1.6Robot sq ft per hour relative to a person with a walk-behind scrubber. Vendor theoretical maxima are about 3.6x (Avidbots Neo 2: 33,583 ft²/h); real floors with turns, obstacles and tank changes run far below that.
Commercial floor cleaningintegration2000Site mapping, training and docking setup per site.
Commercial floor cleaningmaint_pct0.08Yearly maintenance and consumables (pads, squeegees, batteries) as a share of purchase price.
Commercial floor cleaninglife5Useful life in years.
Commercial floor cleaninguptime0.85Share of the cleaning window the robot is actually cleaning (charging, tank changes).
Commercial floor cleaningfailure0.03Share of robot work lost to faults that a person has to cover.
Commercial floor cleaningedge0.15Share of the area robots skip (corners, under racking, spills, stairs) that a person still cleans.
Commercial floor cleaningsup_min6Minutes of staff time per robot-hour (start, empty, refill, rescue).
Commercial floor cleaningkwh_h1.2kWh per robot operating hour.
Warehouse order picking (AMR-assisted)volume4000Order lines picked per day.
Warehouse order picking (AMR-assisted)hours16Operating hours per day (two shifts).
Warehouse order picking (AMR-assisted)days22Operating days per month.
Warehouse order picking (AMR-assisted)months12Active months per year.
Warehouse order picking (AMR-assisted)human_rate80Picks per hour for a person walking a cart. Varies hugely with order profile; use your own WMS figure.
Warehouse order picking (AMR-assisted)robot_rate60Picks per robot-hour. Collaborative AMRs do the walking; people still do the picking, so this is robot throughput, not autonomy.
Warehouse order picking (AMR-assisted)integration30000WMS integration, mapping and change management for a first site. Integration often costs more than the robots.
Warehouse order picking (AMR-assisted)life5Contract or useful life in years.
Warehouse order picking (AMR-assisted)uptime0.9Share of the shift each robot is available.
Warehouse order picking (AMR-assisted)failure0.02Share of robot work lost to faults.
Warehouse order picking (AMR-assisted)edge0.1Share of picks that stay manual (oversize, hazmat, rush orders).
Warehouse order picking (AMR-assisted)sup_min30Picker minutes per robot-hour. In assisted picking a person meets the robot at each pick face, so this is large by design.
Warehouse order picking (AMR-assisted)kwh_h0.3kWh per robot-hour.
Pallet movingvolume200Pallet moves per day on fixed routes (dock to racking, line-side).
Pallet movinghours16Operating hours per day.
Pallet movingdays22Operating days per month.
Pallet movingmonths12Active months per year.
Pallet movinghuman_rate12Moves per operator-hour on these routes.
Pallet movingratio0.7AMR moves per hour relative to a person: slower travel, no shortcuts.
Pallet movingintegration5000Site prep, floor marking and change management on top of the vendor package.
Pallet movingmaint_pct0.06Yearly maintenance and software after the included period, share of price.
Pallet movinglife6Useful life in years.
Pallet movinguptime0.85Availability after charging.
Pallet movingfailure0.03Work lost to faults.
Pallet movingedge0.25Moves that need a person (damaged pallets, ad-hoc moves, trailers).
Pallet movingsup_min5Staff minutes per robot-hour (calling moves, clearing blockages).
Pallet movingkwh_h1kWh per robot-hour.
Pallet movinghuman_equip_h0Truck or forklift cost per operator-hour. Default 0 means the comparison ignores the forklift you might retire; add yours.
Security patrolvolume24Patrol hours needed per day (24 = round the clock).
Security patrolhours24Operating hours per day.
Security patroldays30.4Days per month (every day).
Security patrolmonths12Active months per year.
Security patrolhuman_rate1One guard-hour covers one patrol-hour.
Security patrolratio1One robot-hour covers one patrol-hour of a defined route (outdoor lots, perimeters).
Security patrolintegration3000Site survey, connectivity and alarm-centre integration.
Security patrollife3Contract length in years.
Security patroluptime0.9Share of hours the robot patrols (charging is scheduled).
Security patrolfailure0.03Hours lost to faults, covered by a guard.
Security patroledge0.35Share of guard hours spent on things a patrol robot cannot do: responding, access control, talking to people. A person stays on call for these.
Security patrolsup_min6Remote-monitoring minutes per robot-hour (watching alerts, often shared across sites).
Security patrolkwh_h0Included in the contract.
Home lawn mowingvolume4.3Mows per month in season (weekly).
Home lawn mowingmonths7Mowing months per year; depends on climate.
Home lawn mowinghours10Hours per day the robot may run.
Home lawn mowingdays30Days per month.
Home lawn mowingrobot_rate0.5Mows completed per robot-hour for a quarter-acre yard (about 2 hours per full mow).
Home lawn mowinglife5Useful life in years.
Home lawn mowinguptime0.8Share of allowed hours the mower can work (rain, charging).
Home lawn mowingfailure0.03Mows lost to faults or stuck robots.
Home lawn mowingedge0.15Edging and trimming the robot can't do, as a share of a service visit you still pay for.
Home lawn mowingsup_min0Your own time is not costed here (you would spend it anyway, or enjoy it).
Home lawn mowingkwh_h0.05kWh per robot-hour.
Commercial mowingvolume12Acres mowed per working day across your sites.
Commercial mowinghours10Hours per day the mower may run.
Commercial mowingdays22Working days per month.
Commercial mowingmonths8Mowing months per year.
Commercial mowinghuman_rate2Acres per hour for an experienced operator on a commercial zero-turn mower.
Commercial mowingratio0.7Autonomous mower acres per hour relative to a person.
Commercial mowingintegration1000Site mapping and crew training.
Commercial mowinglife3Lease term in years.
Commercial mowinguptime0.85Availability.
Commercial mowingfailure0.03Work lost to faults.
Commercial mowingedge0.25Trimming, slopes and obstacles a person still handles.
Commercial mowingsup_min20Crew minutes per robot-hour: transport, supervision while it mows nearby.
Commercial mowingkwh_h3kWh per robot-hour.
Commercial mowinghuman_equip_h0Your mower's fuel and ownership cost per hour. Default 0 ignores it.
Pool cleaningvolume1One month of pool care.
Pool cleaningmonths12Months the pool is open.
Pool cleaninghours3Robot cycle hours per day it runs.
Pool cleaningdays8Cleaning cycles per month.
Pool cleaningrobot_rate0.042A month of cleaning needs about 24 robot-hours (8 cycles of 3 hours).
Pool cleaningintegration0Plug it in.
Pool cleaningmaint_pct0.08Yearly parts (filters, brushes, eventually a motor) as a share of price.
Pool cleaninglife5Useful life in years.
Pool cleaninguptime0.95Availability.
Pool cleaningfailure0.03Months lost to faults.
Pool cleaningedge0.5Share of the service you still need: water chemistry, filter and equipment checks. Many owners do these themselves (then set 0).
Pool cleaningsup_min0Your time is not costed.
Pool cleaningkwh_h0.2kWh per robot-hour.
Window and facade cleaningvolume120000Facade square feet cleaned per year (e.g. 60,000 sq ft twice).
Window and facade cleaningmonths12Months per year (volume is annual).
Window and facade cleaninghours8Working hours per day.
Window and facade cleaningdays20Working days per month.
Window and facade cleaningrobot_rate1500Facade sq ft per drone-hour including setup and moves.
Window and facade cleaningintegration5000Pilot certification, insurance and gear to run your own drone.
Window and facade cleaninglife3Subscription commitment in years.
Window and facade cleaninguptime0.6Share of working hours flyable (wind, rain, battery swaps).
Window and facade cleaningfailure0.02Work lost to faults.
Window and facade cleaningedge0.2Share still done by rope or lift (recessed windows, detail work, inspection).
Window and facade cleaningsup_min120Crew minutes per drone-hour: pilot plus a ground person for the hose and the public.
Window and facade cleaningkwh_h2kWh per drone-hour.
Roof inspectionvolume10Roof inspections per month.
Roof inspectionmonths12Months per year.
Roof inspectionhours8Working hours per day.
Roof inspectiondays20Working days per month.
Roof inspectionedge0.1Inspections where someone still climbs (soft spots, interior attic checks).
Cell tower inspectionvolume20Towers inspected per month.
Cell tower inspectionmonths12Months per year.
Cell tower inspectionhours8Hours per day.
Cell tower inspectiondays20Days per month.
Cell tower inspectionedge0.15Towers that still need a climb (hands-on testing, torque checks, repairs).
Wind turbine blade inspectionvolume50Turbines inspected per year.
Wind turbine blade inspectionmonths12Months per year.
Wind turbine blade inspectionhours8Hours per day.
Wind turbine blade inspectiondays20Days per month.
Wind turbine blade inspectionedge0.1Share of turbines needing rope access anyway (repairs, lightning-protection tests).
Solar farm inspectionvolume50MW of plant inspected per year.
Solar farm inspectionmonths12Months per year.
Solar farm inspectionhours8Hours per day.
Solar farm inspectiondays20Days per month.
Solar farm inspectionedge0.05Share needing a person on site anyway (string-level electrical tests).
Crop sprayingvolume2000Acres sprayed per year (all passes).
Crop sprayingmonths12Volume is annual.
Crop sprayinghours8Flying hours per spray day.
Crop sprayingdays10Spray days per month, averaged.
Crop sprayingrobot_rate25Acres per drone-hour in practice, including refills and moves. Spec sheets quote more.
Crop sprayingintegration12000Extra batteries, generator, mixing trailer, certification (FAA Part 137 in the US) and insurance.
Crop sprayingmaint_pct0.1Yearly repairs and battery replacement, share of price.
Crop sprayinglife4Useful life in years.
Crop sprayinguptime0.7Share of spray hours flyable (wind, rain).
Crop sprayingfailure0.03Work lost to faults.
Crop sprayingedge0.05Acres a drone cannot do well (very large flat fields at high volume rates).
Crop sprayingsup_min120Crew minutes per drone-hour: pilot plus a mixer/visual observer.
Crop sprayingkwh_h10Generator or grid energy per drone-hour (kWh).
Drone light show vs fireworksvolume1Shows per year.
Drone light show vs fireworksmonths12Volume is annual.
Drone light show vs fireworksedge0Nothing left over.
Restaurant food runningvolume10Runner hours needed per day (lunch and dinner).
Restaurant food runninghours12Opening hours per day.
Restaurant food runningdays30Open days per month.
Restaurant food runningmonths12Months per year.
Restaurant food runninghuman_rate1One runner-hour.
Restaurant food runningratio0.5Share of a runner-hour of work one robot-hour replaces (it carries; servers still serve).
Restaurant food runningintegration500Mapping the dining room and staff training.
Restaurant food runningmaint_pct0.05Yearly maintenance share of price.
Restaurant food runninglife4Useful life in years.
Restaurant food runninguptime0.9Availability.
Restaurant food runningfailure0.03Work lost to faults.
Restaurant food runningedge0.3Running the robot cannot do: stairs, terraces, crowded floors, big parties.
Restaurant food runningsup_min5Staff minutes per robot-hour beyond normal serving (loading, clearing paths).
Restaurant food runningkwh_h0.1kWh per robot-hour.
Hospital deliveriesvolume80Deliveries per day (meds, linens, specimens, meals).
Hospital deliverieshours20Operating hours per day.
Hospital deliveriesdays30.4Every day.
Hospital deliveriesmonths12Months per year.
Hospital deliverieshuman_rate3Deliveries per porter-hour including waiting for lifts.
Hospital deliveriesratio0.8Robot deliveries per hour relative to a porter (slower, but no breaks).
Hospital deliveriesintegration25000Lift and door interfaces, Wi-Fi survey, charging bays. Often the hardest part in older buildings.
Hospital deliveriesmaint_pct0.1Yearly service contract share of price (owned).
Hospital deliverieslife7Useful life in years.
Hospital deliveriesuptime0.85Availability after charging.
Hospital deliveriesfailure0.03Runs lost to faults.
Hospital deliveriesedge0.3Deliveries that stay human: STAT runs, patient-facing handovers, odd items.
Hospital deliveriessup_min6Staff minutes per robot-hour loading and unloading (beyond what a porter run also needs).
Hospital deliverieskwh_h0.5kWh per robot-hour.
CNC / injection machine tendingvolume16Hours per day the machine needs tending.
CNC / injection machine tendinghours16Shift hours per day.
CNC / injection machine tendingdays22Working days per month.
CNC / injection machine tendingmonths12Months per year.
CNC / injection machine tendinghuman_rate1One operator-hour.
CNC / injection machine tendingratio1The machine cycle sets the pace, so one robot-hour covers one operator-hour.
CNC / injection machine tendingintegration40000Gripper, fixtures, safety, guarding, programming. Integrators say the arm is often half or less of the total.
CNC / injection machine tendinglife8Useful life in years.
CNC / injection machine tendinguptime0.92Availability.
CNC / injection machine tendingfailure0.03Hours lost to faults and jams.
CNC / injection machine tendingedge0.1Changeovers, first-article checks and odd parts that need a person.
CNC / injection machine tendingsup_min8Operator minutes per robot-hour (loading trays, inspections, restarts).
CNC / injection machine tendingkwh_h0.3kWh per robot-hour.
Weldingvolume8Manual welding hours of work per day.
Weldinghours8Shift hours per day.
Weldingdays22Working days per month.
Weldingmonths12Months per year.
Weldinghuman_rate1One manual welding hour.
Weldingratio2Output of one cobot-hour relative to a manual welder-hour. The vendor says most shops see 2-4x; we take the low end.
Weldingintegration15000Fixtures, guarding, training beyond the package. Integrators quote $15,000-$40,000 for un-packaged systems.
Weldinglife8Useful life in years.
Weldinguptime0.85Arc-ready share of the shift (loading, tip changes).
Weldingfailure0.03Hours lost to faults.
Weldingedge0.3Welds that stay manual: one-offs, awkward joints, repairs.
Weldingsup_min30Welder minutes per robot-hour (fixturing, loading, inspecting). Cobot welding is a person plus a robot.
Weldingkwh_h6kWh per hour of welding.
End-of-line palletizingvolume3000Cases stacked per day.
End-of-line palletizinghours16Line hours per day.
End-of-line palletizingdays22Working days per month.
End-of-line palletizingmonths12Months per year.
End-of-line palletizinghuman_rate250Cases per person-hour (light cases; heavy ones are slower and harder on backs).
End-of-line palletizingratio1.2Robot cases per hour relative to a person.
End-of-line palletizingintegration10000Conveyor tie-in, safety scanners, pattern programming.
End-of-line palletizingmaint_pct0.04Yearly maintenance share of price.
End-of-line palletizinglife10Useful life in years.
End-of-line palletizinguptime0.93Availability (pallet changes).
End-of-line palletizingfailure0.02Output lost to faults.
End-of-line palletizingedge0.05Mixed or damaged cases stacked by hand.
End-of-line palletizingsup_min6Operator minutes per robot-hour (pallet swaps, slip sheets).
End-of-line palletizingkwh_h0.5kWh per robot-hour.
Warehouse inventory countingvolume30000Pallet locations counted per month (e.g. 15,000 locations twice).
Warehouse inventory countinghours16Hours per day the drone may fly.
Warehouse inventory countingdays22Days per month.
Warehouse inventory countingmonths12Months per year.
Warehouse inventory countinghuman_rate60Locations per person-hour with an order picker or reach truck for high bays.
Warehouse inventory countingrobot_rate150Locations per drone-hour.
Warehouse inventory countingintegration5000WMS integration and site setup.
Warehouse inventory countinglife3Contract years.
Warehouse inventory countinguptime0.8Availability (charging).
Warehouse inventory countingfailure0.03Work lost to faults.
Warehouse inventory countingedge0.1Locations that still need a person (unreadable labels, exceptions to resolve).
Warehouse inventory countingsup_min3Staff minutes per drone-hour.
Warehouse inventory countingkwh_h0.2kWh per drone-hour.
Warehouse inventory countinghuman_equip_h0Lift truck cost per counter-hour. Default 0 ignores it.
Residential snow clearingvolume4Clearings per winter month.
Residential snow clearingmonths4Snow months per year.
Residential snow clearinghours6Hours per day it may run.
Residential snow clearingdays30Days per month.
Residential snow clearingrobot_rate1Clearings per robot-hour for a two-car driveway.
Residential snow clearingintegration0DIY setup.
Residential snow clearingmaint_pct0.05Yearly parts share of price.
Residential snow clearinglife6Useful life in years.
Residential snow clearinguptime0.9Availability.
Residential snow clearingfailure0.05Clearings lost to faults or stuck robots.
Residential snow clearingedge0.2Visits you still need: heavy wet snow, the plough berm at the end of the drive.
Residential snow clearingsup_min0Your time is not costed.
Residential snow clearingkwh_h1.5kWh per robot-hour.
Any other job (build your own)volume100Units of work per day.
Any other job (build your own)hours8Operating hours per day.
Any other job (build your own)days22Working days per month.
Any other job (build your own)months12Months per year.
Any other job (build your own)human_rate10Units per person-hour.
Any other job (build your own)ratio1Robot units per hour relative to a person.
Any other job (build your own)purchase50000Robot price. Replace with a quote.
Any other job (build your own)lease1500Lease per robot-month.
Any other job (build your own)raas1500RaaS per robot-month.
Any other job (build your own)integration20000Integration. In factories this is often 1-3x the robot price.
Any other job (build your own)maint_pct0.06Yearly maintenance share of price.
Any other job (build your own)life6Useful life in years.
Any other job (build your own)uptime0.85Availability.
Any other job (build your own)failure0.03Work lost to faults.
Any other job (build your own)edge0.15Work that stays human.
Any other job (build your own)sup_min6Staff minutes per robot-hour.
Any other job (build your own)kwh_h0.5kWh per robot-hour.
All jobsrate0.08Annual financing / discount rate. Nobody publishes yours; 8% is a round mid-2026 commercial borrowing guess.
All jobskwh_price0.15Electricity price per kWh (USD). Check your bill; energy is rarely a big line.
All jobshorizon5Years in the NPV comparison.
All jobssvc_labour_share0.6Share of a human service price that is labour (rises with wages). Used to escalate and to adjust US service prices to other countries.
All jobsrobot_svc_labour_share0.4Share of a robot service price that is labour (pilot, technician). The rest is equipment, which learning curves make cheaper.
All jobsfee_hw_share0.6Share of a lease or RaaS fee that pays for hardware (learns down). The rest is service and support (moves with wages).

6. What a cost model cannot tell you

  • Integration and change management dominate real projects and vary by an order of magnitude. Our defaults are mid-range guesses; get quotes.
  • Robots rarely replace a job one-for-one. They replace tasks; the "edge share" and "supervision" inputs are where most of the honesty lives.
  • Vendors fail. iRobot went through Chapter 11 in December 2025 (iRobot); Walmart dropped shelf-scanning robots in 2020 (Reuters); Japan's Henn-na Hotel retired more than half its 243 robots in 2019 (The Verge). A five-year NPV assumes your vendor is still there in year five.
  • Exchange rates, interest rates and wages move. Crossovers in emerging economies are especially sensitive to the exchange rate.
  • None of this is financial advice. It is arithmetic with receipts.

7. Versions and reuse

Model version 1.0.0. Changes to formulas or defaults bump the version; every published projection is logged append-only with its version on the track record page. Data and model are CC BY 4.0: download them, or call the API and MCP tool.

Cite this

APA
Whirrwork. (2026). Robot or Human? cost model and methodology (Version 1.0.0) [Data set and interactive model]. https://whirrwork.com/tools/robot-vs-human/methodology/
Chicago
Whirrwork. “Robot or Human? cost model and methodology.” Version 1.0.0. 2026. Accessed October 25, 2026. https://whirrwork.com/tools/robot-vs-human/methodology/.
MLA
Whirrwork. “Robot or Human? cost model and methodology.” Whirrwork, 2026, whirrwork.com/tools/robot-vs-human/methodology/. Accessed 25 Oct 2026.
BibTeX
@misc{whirrwork2026robot,
  author = {{Whirrwork}},
  title = {Robot or Human? cost model and methodology},
  year = {2026},
  version = {1.0.0},
  howpublished = {\url{https://whirrwork.com/tools/robot-vs-human/methodology/}},
  note = {Accessed 2026-10-25. Modelled estimates, not facts.}
}

All sources

  1. Occupational Employment and Wage Statistics, May 2025 (median hourly wage by occupation) U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2025-05
  2. OEWS May 2025 state estimates (median hourly wage by occupation and state) U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2025-05
  3. Employer Costs for Employee Compensation, June 2026: wages and salaries 70.0% of private-industry compensation (series CMU2020000000000P) U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2026-06
  4. Mean nominal hourly earnings of employees by sex and occupation (ISCO-08), DF_EAR_EHRA_SEX_OCU_CUR_NB ILOSTAT (International Labour Organization), from national labour force and earnings surveys, 2025
  5. Average monthly earnings of employees by sex and economic activity, DF_EAR_EMTA_SEX_ECO_CUR_NB ILOSTAT (International Labour Organization), 2022
  6. 令和6年賃金構造基本統計調査 (Basic Survey on Wage Structure 2024), table 1 by occupation Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare, Japan (via e-Stat), 2024-06
  7. Average annual wage of employed persons in urban units in 2024 (by position and by region) National Bureau of Statistics of China, 2025-05-20
  8. National economy 2025: average weekly working hours of enterprise employees 48.6 National Bureau of Statistics of China, 2026-01-19
  9. Labour cost levels by NACE Rev. 2 activity (lc_lci_lev): Germany 2022-2025, total labour cost vs wages and salaries per hour Eurostat, 2025
  10. Rates and thresholds for employers 2025 to 2026 (employer Class 1 NIC 15% above £5,000) HM Revenue & Customs, 2025-04-06
  11. Workplace pensions: what you, your employer and the government pay (employer minimum 3%) GOV.UK, 2025
  12. Consumer price index (2010 = 100), FP.CPI.TOTL World Bank, World Development Indicators, 2026-10-08
  13. Euro foreign exchange reference rates (cross rates to USD), via Frankfurter European Central Bank, 2026-10-23
  14. ISSA 612 cleaning times: 20-inch walk-behind automatic scrubber about 9,274 sq ft per hour; wet mop about 1,333-1,429 ISSA, as reproduced by Parish Supply, 2026-10
  15. Neo 2 disc cleaning head technical specifications: maximum theoretical productivity 33,583 ft²/h (26-inch) Avidbots, 2026-10 · vendor
  16. Gausium autonomous scrubbers: purchase $29,600-$95,880; RaaS $829-$2,669/month on a 36-month term RobotLAB (reseller), 2026-10 · vendor
  17. Avidbots Neo lease $2,250-$2,900/month, as quoted by an Avidbots representative MLive, 2024-01
  18. Locus Robotics offers warehouse robots for $2,000 per month as a service CIVL, 2026-10
  19. Big Joe Pallet Mover AMR brochure: $45,000 each incl. deployment, training, annual visit and 3-year software subscription Jtec Products (dealer), 2024-08-14 · vendor
  20. Knightscope robots: effective $6-$12 per hour on an annual 24/7 Machine-as-a-Service contract Knightscope, 2026-10 · vendor
  21. Mammotion LUBA 3 AWD robot mower: $2,399-$3,299 by coverage tier Mammotion US store, 2026-10 · vendor
  22. Robotic mower installation: up to 1 acre $499, over 1 acre $799 Zippy Lawnz (installer), 2026-10 · vendor
  23. Annual robotic mower care plans $149-$249 Smart Lawn NY (installer), 2026-10 · vendor
  24. Lawn mowing cost: $30-$85 per visit for a 1/8 to 1/4 acre yard, about $50 on average HomeGuide, 2026
  25. Scythe M.52 autonomous commercial mower lease from $1,800/month (Standard, incl. 40 autonomous acres) Scythe Robotics, 2026-10 · vendor
  26. Weekly professional pool service $100-$150 per month PoolRobots.com, 2026-10 · vendor
  27. Maytronics Dolphin residential robotic pool cleaners $849-$1,449 (mid-range models) Maytronics US store, 2026-10-25 · vendor
  28. Conventional lift/rope exterior cleaning bids $0.50-$3.50 per sq ft (for comparison with drone cleaning) Sky PSI (drone cleaning company), 2026-10 · vendor
  29. Drone facade/window cleaning, commercial buildings: $0.12-$0.25 per sq ft Vista Drone Cleaning, 2026-10 · vendor
  30. Drone window/facade cleaning, Southern California: $0.25-$0.50 per sq ft Peninsula Pressure Pro, 2026-10 · vendor
  31. Lucid Bots Sherpa cleaning drone subscription for operators: $2,950-$4,600 per month Lucid Bots, 2026-10 · vendor
  32. Roof inspection cost: traditional physical inspection $75-$200 HomeGuide, 2026
  33. Drone roof inspection cost: standard visual $150-$400; thermal $400-$600 HomeGuide, 2026-01
  34. Drone inspection cost vs traditional methods: tower climb $800-$1,500 vs drone $350-$600; roof ladder $300-$800 vs drone $150-$400; solar manual $0.008-$0.012/W vs drone $0.003-$0.006/W AeroDeploy (drone inspection company), 2026 · vendor
  35. Cell tower drone inspection, average US rate $300-$600 per tower Scanixx, 2026-10 · vendor
  36. Wind turbine inspection costs: rope access $1,500-$3,000 per turbine vs drone $300-$600 SkyVisor (drone inspection software company), 2026-10 · vendor
  37. Wind turbine drone inspection in France: €350-€700 per turbine within a farm campaign C-Drone, 2026-10 · vendor
  38. Drone thermography of a ground-mounted solar farm (France): €150-€400 per MWp C-Drone, 2026-10 · vendor
  39. 2025 Iowa Farm Custom Rate Survey: self-propelled ground broadcast spraying $8.70/acre average; aerial application $11.85/acre average (materials excluded) Iowa State University Extension and Outreach, 2025
  40. 2025 ASDC Impact Survey: US average custom drone spray rate $13/acre (down from $21 in 2024) American Spray Drone Coalition, 2026-01
  41. DJI Agras T50 from $19,999; spray-ready package $31,500 Southeast Drone Solutions (dealer), 2026-10 · vendor
  42. Drone fumigation in Mexico: MXN 300-800 per hectare, application only EAVision México, 2026-10 · vendor
  43. Outsourced drone spraying in Brazil: BRL 60-150 per hectare Planon Ambiental, 2026-10 · vendor
  44. Average drone show cost by region (SPH Engineering market data): North America $52,500 (~218 drones); EU $42,034; UK $90,600; China $114,560; India $91,700; LatAm $25,550 Cyberdrone, citing SPH Engineering, 2026-10 · vendor
  45. City council agenda: Rails to Trails fireworks display, $9,468 (Flashing Thunder) City of Watertown, Minnesota, 2025-07-08
  46. Board of Trustees: Zambelli Fireworks contract, $42,500 base for a 22-minute July 3, 2026 show Town of Berthoud, Colorado, 2026-02-10
  47. Pudu BellaBot: buy $14,500; RaaS lease $409/month RobotLAB (reseller), 2026-10 · vendor
  48. UK serving robot rental £490-£590/month on a 24-month term incl. maintenance Hutech Robotics, 2026-10 · vendor
  49. Tug robots leased for $1,500-$2,000 a month; University of Maryland Medical Center per-trip cost $2.40 by robot vs $5.50 by hand (WSJ, Feb 2014, reproduced by Aethon) The Wall Street Journal via Aethon, 2014-02-23
  50. Hospitals have purchased TUGs for $75,000-$140,000; leases $1,500-$2,000/month (Becker's Hospital Review, reproduced by Aethon) Becker's Hospital Review via Aethon, 2015-03-31
  51. Universal Robots UR5e cobot arm $39,083-$43,544 (US distributor listing) Automation Distribution, 2026-10 · vendor
  52. RaaS machine tending: six-axis robot at about $10 per hour (Formic) Plastics Machinery & Manufacturing, 2026-10
  53. Cobot Welder starting price $105,000 (complete system incl. UR8 Long, power source, torch, cart, software); "most shops see 2-4x the output" Hirebotics, 2026-10 · vendor
  54. Cobot welding price breakdown: integration/commissioning $15,000-$40,000; base system 50-60% of total investment; maintenance 3-5% per year THG Automation (integrator), 2026 · vendor
  55. Turnkey FANUC CRX cobot palletizing cell, from $94,750 RobotPalletizer.com, 2026-10 · vendor
  56. Complete cobot palletizer cell $119,850 PicPac USA, 2026-10 · vendor
  57. Langham Logistics pays about $4,000 per month per Gather AI inventory drone Indianapolis Business Journal via Progressive Logistics, 2026-10
  58. Corvus One inventory drone, small distribution centre (<150,000 sq ft): about $2,500-$4,500 per month RaaS Actel Robotics, 2026 · vendor
  59. Snow removal: driveway $30-$70 per visit (standard driveway up to 90 ft) HomeGuide, 2026
  60. Yarbo Y40P Core with Snow Blower Module Gen 2: $7,299 Yarbo US store, 2026-10 · vendor
  61. World Robotics 2026: 603,307 industrial robots installed in 2025 (+11%); forecast 655,000 in 2026 and 806,000 in 2029 International Federation of Robotics, 2026-09
  62. Global sales of professional service robots surge 24% (2025): ~250,000 units; transport & logistics 117,500 (+21%); professional cleaning +40% International Federation of Robotics, 2026-09-30
  63. Interact Analysis: mobile robot shipments grew 70% in 2021; each time shipments double, prices expected to fall about 10-15% Robotics 24/7, 2022-12
  64. Wright, T. P. (1936). Factors affecting the cost of airplanes. Journal of the Aeronautical Sciences, 3(4), 122-128 Journal of the Aeronautical Sciences, 1936
  65. Nagy, B., Farmer, J. D., Bui, Q. M., & Trancik, J. E. (2013). Statistical basis for predicting technological progress. PLoS ONE, 8(2), e52669 (62 technologies; Wright's law among the best hindcasters; errors grow with horizon) PLoS ONE, 2013
  66. Ziegler, M. S., & Trancik, J. E. (2021). Re-examining rates of lithium-ion battery technology improvement and cost decline. Energy & Environmental Science, 14, 1635-1651 (about 20% cost decline per doubling) Energy & Environmental Science, 2021
  67. Battery pack prices cited below $100/kWh for the first time in 2020, while market average sits at $137/kWh (89% real decline from >$1,100/kWh in 2010) BloombergNEF, 2020-12-16
  68. Lithium-ion battery pack prices see largest drop since 2017, falling to $115 per kilowatt-hour BloombergNEF, 2024-12-10
  69. Lithium-ion battery pack prices fall to $108 per kilowatt-hour (2025, -8%) BloombergNEF, 2025-12-09
  70. Velodyne introduces 3D real-time LiDAR Puck (VLP-16) at $7,999 Velodyne via PRWeb, 2014-09-03 · vendor
  71. Velodyne slashes the price of its most popular LiDAR sensor in half (VLP-16 to $3,999) RoboticsTomorrow, 2018-01-02
  72. China's Hesai to halve lidar prices next year (ATX under $200 in 2025) Reuters, 2024-11-27
  73. Unitree Robotics unveils G1 humanoid for $16K (H1 was $90,000) The Robot Report, 2024-05-13
  74. Unitree G1 humanoid official store price $13,500-$15,999 Unitree, 2026-10 · vendor
  75. DJI announces $15,000 agricultural drone designed to spray crops (Agras MG-1, 10 kg tank) The Verge, 2015-11-26
  76. iRobot introduces Roomba Intelligent FloorVac, $199.95 iRobot, 2002-09-18 · vendor
  77. Roomba robot vacuums with self-emptying or auto-wash dock, $449.99-$699.99 iRobot US store, 2026-10-25 · vendor
  78. Universal Robots wants to conquer the universe (of robotic arms): UR5 costs $35,000 IEEE Spectrum, 2015
  79. iRobot announces strategic transaction (prepackaged Chapter 11; Picea to acquire) iRobot, 2025-12-14 · vendor
  80. Walmart drops plans to use robots for tracking inventory Reuters, 2020-11-02
  81. Japan's robot hotel lays off half the robots after they created more work for humans The Verge, 2019-01-15